Getting an Internship in Geography

​For every college student, an internship is a very valuable method by which to obtain on-the-job experience that will not only benefit your resume and provide contacts to employers but will also help you to determine what to do after graduating. Its worth trying to obtain more than one internship during your academic career --the more experience, the better. Jobs for Geographers Now, we all know that the job listings for geographer in the classifieds are few and far between. If this were not the case, our parents and relatives would never need to ask, What are you going to do with a degree in geography, teach? (However, it is true that the U.S. Census Bureau and a few other government agencies do have positions classified as geographer!) However, the job prospects for geographers are becoming brighter with each autumnal equinox. Jobs in GIS and planning are becoming more common and geographers can easily fill these positions with experience gained in the classroom and in an internship. These two areas offer ample opportunities for internships, especially with local government agencies. While some internships are paid, the vast majority are not. A good internship will allow you to be part of the day-to-day activities of your agency - you should be part of not just the work, but also the departmental planning, discussion, and implementation. How to Get a Geography Internship While the status quo for obtaining an internship might be to go through your universitys internship office, it isnt always necessary. You can go directly to agencies youre interested in working for and inquire about internship programs. A contact through a friendly faculty member is also a good route to take. By directly volunteering your services to an agency that youre interested in working for is a quick method to begin a fun-filled educational experience outside of the classroom. Just be sure that if youre asking about an internship, that you have the appropriate skills for the job (for example, you should probably have some coursework in GIS prior to an internship in GIS.) When contacting a prospective agency about an internship, be sure to have a fresh and up-to-date resume and cover letter. Youd be amazed by the number of geography students who dont take advantage of the opportunity to intern. Youll be amazed at how much you learn from the on-the-job experience and youll be much more employable afterward. Additionally, the odds are pretty favorable that you could end up working for the agency where you had your internship. Try it. You might like it!

A Comparison Of “The Birthmark” By Nathaniel Hawthorne

A Comparison of â€Å"The Birthmark† by Nathaniel Hawthorne and â€Å"Barbie Doll† by Marge Piercy When reading a story, people do not often think about how much it might relate to another story they have read in the past. In â€Å"The Birthmark† Georgiana simply wants her unique birthmark removed from her face. Similarly, in â€Å"Barbie Doll† the unnamed young lady wants her nose and legs removed. In both of these stories the reader can see that these women are chasing society’s idea of perfection. The short story â€Å"The Birthmark† written by Nathaniel Hawthorne and the poem â€Å"Barbie Doll† written by Marge Piercy have almost the exact same theme because both of these short works of fiction are about a woman that is influenced by her peers to become†¦show more content†¦From this moment on, every acceptable quality she has will mean absolutely nothing to her. As long as she has her big nose and her two thick legs, that is all she will see herself as wholly. This leads her to thinking about permanently removing her unwanted flaws. She believes that if she removes her flaws, she will finally be accepted by society. In both stories, the reader interprets that both the woman and the young girl have specific qualities that someone in their lives has pointed out as flaws. The opinions of these certain people obviously matter to both of them, so they eventually decide that they want their flaws removed for good. When the main characters of the stories decide that they are certain that they want their flaws removed, they do not hesitate to immediately remove their imperfections. These abrupt decisions go entirely wrong for both women in the end. After all of the pressure from their peers, they remove their flaws permanently. As the unwanted mark fades from Georgiana’s face, â€Å"the parting breath of the now perfect woman passed into the atmosphere† (Hawthorne 301). Her flaw f inally leaves her face, but it unfortunately takes Georgiana’s life along with it. Similar to this situation, in â€Å"Barbie Doll† the main character decides to remove her flaws by simply cutting them off. She removes her nose and legs â€Å"and offered them up† (Piercy 771). Piercy writing that she is offering her flaws up, the author is unmistakably symbolizingShow MoreRelatedThe Puritan Effect1703 Words   |  7 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne is respected as â€Å"one of the great masters of American Fiction† (â€Å"Hawthorne, Nathaniel† 363). He is an accomplished author who wrote novels as well as children’s literature. However, Hawthorne’s strength is American short story; his â€Å"haunting† tales are undeniably responsible for establishing this genre as a â€Å"significant art form† (â€Å"Nathaniel Hawthorne† Columbia 1). He is known for his â€Å"penetrating explorations† of the conflicts within one’s conscience and the consequences thatRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s The Birthmark1476 Words   |  6 Pagesto the destruction of nature. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Birthmark,† it appears that Aylmer the main character wants to show the world that perfection is not beauty, and he demonstrates this with his wife Georgiana and that science should not alter the way that nature set man on this world to be. Hawthorne was a major asset to the transcendental movement, and this short story is a perfect example why. Nathaniel Hawthorne attempts to show the world the comparison between perfection and beauty mainlyRead MoreTwo Mad Scientists: a Comparison of Hawthorne’s Short Stories â€Å"the Birthmark† and â€Å"Rappaccini’s Daughter1572 Words   |  7 Pages 3 2. A Comparison of Hawthorne’s Short Stories â€Å"The Birthmark† and 3 â€Å"Rappaccini’s Daughter† 3 3.1 The Role of the Scientist 3 3.2 The Role of the Wife and daughter 4 3.3 Nature vs. Science 5 3. Conclusion 6 Works Cited 7 Honestly Declaration 8 1. Introduction In the main part of the following paper with the topic â€Å"Two Mad Scientists: A Comparison of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Short Stories â€Å"The Birthmark† and Rappaccini’sRead MoreA Comparative Analysis of the Concepts of Science and Nature in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Birthmark and Rappaccinis Daughter1531 Words   |  6 Pages Nathaniel Hawthornes The Birthmark and Rappaccinis Daughter both address the concepts of science and nature and the conflicts that the two typically generate. The protagonists in both stories feel that it is essential for them to do something in order to improve the persons they love. Moreover, they appear to consider that they actually want to help the persons they love instead of actually helping themselves by doing so. The women in the two stories focus on being as good as they can possiblyRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne: A Brief Biography1277 Words   |  6 Pages On July 4, 1804, an author by the name of Nathaniel Hawthorne was born (Meltzer). As Hawthorne grew, he began to develop a view of himself as â€Å"the obscurest man in American letters.† Through the use of popular themes such as isolation, guilt, and earthly imperfection, Hawthorne was able to involve much of his life and ancestral past in his work to answer his own political and religious wonders (â€Å"Nathan iel†). Hawthorne successfully â€Å"confronts reality rather than evading it† in many of his storiesRead MoreSymbolism : The Birthmark, By Nathaniel Hawthorne849 Words   |  4 Pages In the short allegory â€Å"The Birthmark†, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, a newly-wed couple becomes consumed by the existence of a small birthmark on the wife’s face. When the wife, Georgiana, allows her husband Aylmer, a scientist, to remove the birthmark, both realize that Georgiana will inevitably sacrifice her life for the sake of its removal. As the story progresses, so does the confliction of the newlyweds as they realize exactly what the birthmark symbolized to and for each other. Hawthorne’s hallmarkRead MoreSymbols, Symbolism, And Symbolism Essay960 Words   |  4 Pagessituation or word to represent something else, like an idea, in literature. There are common types of symbolism in literature. Some are Metaphors, Allegory, Colors, and objects. Metaphors are a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristic. This is commonly used in Poetry and shortRead MoreNoble Love in The Birthmark Essay1710 Words   |  7 PagesNoble Love in  The Birthmark     Ã‚  Ã‚   Often billed as a story of an unsuccessful attempt to beat Nature at her own game, â€Å"The Birthmark† by Nathaniel Hawthorne certainly lends itself to a somewhat deeper interpretation.   Over the years many scholars have noted that the story of Aylmer and Georgiana is riddled with traditional Hawthorne themes such as the evils of selfishness and pride, coupled with an element of solitariness (Arvin xvi).   However, we are want to consider whether Aylmer’s motivesRead MoreThe Call Of Cthulhu, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1472 Words   |  6 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story, â€Å"The Birth-mark,† and H.P. Lovecraft’s horror story, â€Å"The Call of Cthulhu,† there are both similarities in themes and style, however, their characterization and narration is entirely different. This lends itself to creating two different short stories, both can be classified as horror or suspenseful. Hawthorne’s story, published ear lier, shares a similar theme of humanity and union with â€Å"The Call of Cthulhu.† The documentary style of H.P. Lovecraft’s shortRead MoreElements of Comparison between Hill’s Like White Elephants and The Birthmark1268 Words   |  6 PagesBoth â€Å"Hill’s like White Elephants† by Ernst Hemingway and â€Å"The Birthmark† by Nathaniel Hawthorne have many common elements of comparison between them. The main element of the stories that will be compared is this thought of an operation. Both stories stem from these two operations and the comparisons derive from how the women react and respond to the two men in the story. Both stories are comparable by the common theme of a life changing operation, how the women first react to the operation and how

Alcohol Control Peoples Free Essays

An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol. Alcoholic beverages are separated into three types: beers, wines, and spirits. Alcohol is a substance that a lot of people, mostly of age and people underage drink to â€Å"forget about their troubles or problems†. We will write a custom essay sample on Alcohol Control Peoples or any similar topic only for you Order Now People drink because they like it when it makes them feel on cloud 9, to feel at bliss. Alcohol is just a waste of time, money and patience. Drinking alcohol only makes you feel like you’re in another world, away from reality. But alcohol won’t help forget those things. Yes it is good sometimes to let go and relax but that doesn’t exactly mean people have to get drunk to feel relaxed. Alcohol should be banned because nothing good comes out of drinking, it causes liver damage and you say things you don’t mean. Everyone knows that alcohol messes with your mind. Nothing good comes out of it because, alcohol makes you do things without thinking. For example, drinking any type of alcohol makes people not have any recognition of what happened during that period of time when they got intoxicated. Being intoxicated makes the alcohol control peoples movements and your brain. Alcohol should be banned because when you get a hangover, it causes a severe headache. A migraine because people were over-drinking. Alcohol is practically ethanol. It’s the liquid we use to clean our cuts, for it cannot become infected. Anybody who drinks alcohol: beer, wine and/or spirits, they all contain ethanol. There is no point for people to practically drink ethanol just because they want to â€Å"relax†. It causes a severe headache, sensitivity to light, nausea, and/or vomiting. Alcohol causes liver damage. There are multiple damages that can damage a persons liver. There is a chronic disease called Cirrhosis, cirrhosis causes scaring of the liver. Alcoholic Hepatitis causes inflammation of the liver due to excessive alcohol in a body system. Alcohol damages the liver, it makes weak and poor to function. The liver is important organ in your body, it’s a fluid that breaks down fats so that smaller fatter molecules can be properly digested. Drinking alcohol will damage an important organ in peoples body. The ethanol in the alcohol damages livers, there is no point of why people want to drink something that damages what they only have. Alcohol should be banned because it changes peoples body, their mental state, and their emotional state. It’s foolish to drink this alcohol if people know it has bad side effects. Everybody always has something on their mind that they want to say out loud. A lot of people just do not have the courage to do so. A lot of people like to drown away their sorrows or problems by drinking. Thinking it’s the only way they’d be able to say the things that they have in mind, by being drunk. And when they are drunk, they are care-free, they have so much confidence to speak what they have in mind. Alcohol should be banned because a lot of people thinks it’s ok to be drunk because the wanna let go. They want to say what they feel, and they don’t want to feel what they say. People should be able to do that out of free will. They shouldn’t have to get drunk, just so they won’t feel any pain when they speak their minds. Alcohol is a bad substance, nothing good comes out of it, it causes problems in your body system, and you do and/or say stuff you don’t mean. Alcohol should be banned because it’s idiotic, how people don’t research the bad side effects from drinking alcohol. That’s why people are dying because people don’t listen. They don’t think, what would happen if they become alcoholic. Alcoholism is a serious thing and people who are addicted to alcohol should seek treatment so they can get better. Alcohol should be banned because it cause families to suffer because of their loved ones who died of alcohol poising or too much alcohol. Alcohol is dangerous, unless you take the precautions like no driving while drinking. How to cite Alcohol Control Peoples, Papers

Pile Foundations Essay Example For Students

Pile Foundations Essay CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1. OVERVIEW OF FOUNDATIONS The word foundation is derived from a latin word fondare meaning to set or ground on something solid. A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure to the ground in a manner that the soil below does not fail in shear and the settlement is within the safe limits. Foundations are broadly classified into two categories: †¢ Shallow Foundation †¢ Deep Foundation A shallow foundation, according to Terzaghi is one whose width is greater than its depth ie. D/ B or = 1. The main types of shallow foundations are footings are footings and raft or mat foundation. Footings can be further subdivided as shown below: †¢ Strip Footing †¢ Spread or Isolated footing †¢ Combined Footing †¢ Strap or Cantilever Footing. The loads must be spread to the soil in a manner such that its limiting strength is not exceeded and resulting deformations are tolerable. Shallow foundations accomplish this by spreading the loads laterally, hence the term spread footing. Whereas spread footing (or simply footing) supports a single column, a mat is a special footing used to support several randomly spaced columns or to support several rows of parallel columns and may underlie a portion of or the entire building. The mat may also be supported, in turn, by piles or drilled piers. Foundations supporting machinery and such are sometimes termed bases. Machinery and the like can produce substantial load intensity over a small area, so the base is used as a load-spreading device similar to the footing. Deep foundations are analogous to spread footings but distribute the load vertically rather than horizontally. The terms drilled pier and drilled caisson are for the pile type member that is constructed by drilling a 0. 76m diameter hole in the soil, adding reinforcing as necessary, and backfilling. On the other hand, a deep foundation is that which transmits the load at considerable depth below the ground surface. The main distinction between a deep foundation and a shallow foundation is generally made according to Terzaghi’s criterion which as discussed earlier termed shallow foundation as that which its depth equals or is less than its width. A very prominent example of deep foundation that will be discussed extensively in this work is the pile foundation. 1. 2WHAT IS A PILE? A pile is a slender structural member made of steel, concrete or wood which transfer the load to a deeper soil or rock of larger bearing capacity. Piles are generally driven, drilled or jacked into the ground. Depending on the type of soil, pile material, load transmitting characteristics etc. , piles are classified accordingly as will be discussed later. Alongside piles, pile cap is a vital component of a pile foundation. Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for many years. In the early days of civilization, from the communication, defense or strategic point of view villages and towns were situated near to rivers and lakes. It was therefore important to strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling. Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled with sand and stones. In 1740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to days pile driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used since 1800 and concrete piles since about 1900. The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system through the invention of steam and diesel driven machines. More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil characteristics. This has led to the development and improved piles and pile driving systems. Today there are many advanced techniques of pile installation. 1. FUNCTION OF PILES Just like other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is: 1. To carry vertical compression load to a solid ground. 2. To resist uplift load. 3. To resist horizontal or inclined loads A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not accepta ble a pile foundation may become considered. Considering the cost estimatation, pile foundation may pose to be cheaper compared to any other ground improvement and development costs. In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers. 1. 4OTHER TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS 1. 4. 1Piers A pier is a vertical column of relatively larger cross-section than a pile. A pier is installed in a dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole of larger diameter to the desired depth and then backfilling it with concrete. In foundations for large buildings, piers are usually cylindrical concrete shafts, cast in prepared holes, while in bridges they take the form of caissons, which are sunk into position. Piers serve the same purpose as piles but are not installed by hammers and, if based on a stable substrate, will support a greater load than a pile. In massive construction jobs, pier shafts having widths of more than 1. m (6 feet) have been excavated to depths greater than 30 m. The lower portion of a pier may be widened to better distribute the downward pressure of a massive overlying structure. Formerly hand-dug shafts were widely used for piers where groundwater presented no serious problem, but hand excavation has been largely superseded by the use of rotary or percussion drilling. The massive augers used to drill shafts for the piers of modern skyscrap ers are mounted vertically on derricks, and the piers themselves are sufficiently long and wide to support the tremendous weight of even the tallest building. Piers for bridges are often installed by the caisson method. The caisson is a hollow boxlike structure that is sunk down through the water and then through the ground to the bearing stratum by excavating from its interior; it ultimately becomes a permanent part of the completed pier. The methods of drilled pier construction can be classified in three categories as 1. The dry method 2. The casing method 3. The slurry method ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DRILLED PIER FOUNDATIONS Advantages 1. Pier of any length and size can be constructed at the site 2. Construction equipment is normally mobile and construction can proceed rapidly 3. Inspection of drilled holes is possible because of the larger diameter of the shafts 4. Very large loads can be carried by a single drilled pier foundation thus eliminating the necessity of a pile cap 5. The drilled pier is applicable to a wide variety of soil conditions 6. Changes can be made in the design criteria during the progress of a job 7. Ground vibration that is normally associated with driven piles is absent in drilled pier construction . Bearing capacity can be increased by underreaming the bottom (in non-caving materials) Disadvantages 1. Installation of drilled piers needs a careful supervision and quality control of all the Materials used in the construction 2. The method is cumbersome. It needs sufficient storage space for all the materials used in the construction 3. The advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction in granular soil that could be obtained in driven piles is not there in drilled pier construction 4. Construction of drilled piers at places where there is a heavy current of ground water flow due to artesian pressure is very difficult 1. 4. 3 Caissons Caissons are boxlike structure used in construction work underwater or as a foundation. It is usually rectangular or circular in plan and may be tens of metres in diameter. A box caisson, open at the top and closed at the bottom, is usually constructed on land, then launched, floated to position, and sunk onto a previously prepared foundation, leaving its upper edge above water level. It serves as a suitable shell for a pier, seawall, breakwater, jetty, or similar work, remaining permanently in place on the sea bottom. An open caisson, open at both the bottom and the top, is fitted with a cutting bottom edge, which facilitates sinking through soft material while excavation is carried out inside through a honeycomb of large pipes, or dredging wells. As excavating proceeds and the caisson sinks, additional sections are added to the shaft above. This process is continued until the caisson has sunk to the required depth. A floor, usually of concrete, is laid to provide a bottom seal. The dredging wells can then be filled with concrete to complete the structure. Pneumatic caissons are similar to open caissons except that they are provided with airtight bulkheads above the cutting edge. The space between the bulkhead and cutting edge, called the working chamber, is pressurized to the extent necessary to control the inflow of soil and water; thus the excavating can be performed by workmen operating in the working chamber at the bottom of the caisson. 1. 4. 3 Drilled Shafts The mining industry has been the primary constructor of shafts, because at many locations these are essential for access to ore, for ventilation, and for material transport. Depths of several thousand feet are common. In public-works projects, such as sewer tunnels, shafts are usually only a few hundred feet deep and because of their high cost are avoided in the design stage wherever practical. Shallower shafts find many uses, however, for penstocks and access to underground hydro plants, for dropping aqueduct tunnels beneath rivers, for missile silos, and for oil and liquefied-gas storage. Being essentially vertical tunnels, shafts involve the same problems of different types of ground and water conditions but on an aggravated scale, since vertical transport makes the operation slower, more costly, and even more congested than with horizontal tunneling. Except when there is a high horizontal geostress in rock, the loading on a shaft support is generally less than for a tunnel. Inflowing water, however, is far more dangerous during construction and generally intolerable during operation. Hence, most shafts are concrete-lined and waterproofed, and the lining installation usually follows only a short distance behind excavation. The shape is usually circular, although, before current mechanized excavation methods, mining shafts were frequently rectangular. Shafts may be sunk from the surface (or drilled in smaller sizes), or, if an existing tunnel provides access, they may be raised from below. CHAPTER TWO 2. 1NECESSITY OF PILES Some conditions where pile foundations become a necessity compared to shallow foundations in engineering practice are: 1. In the case of irregularity of a structure’s plan relative to its load distribution and outline. Non-uniform settlement will set in if the structure is constructed on a shallow foundation and therefore requires a pile foundation to reduce the differential settlement. 2. Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces and at the same time, support the vertical loads in earth-retaining structures that are subjected to horizontal forces due to earthquake. 3. When there is a case of high compressibility and also weakness in the strata at or just below the ground surface so that the load transmitted by the structure cannot be supported. . They are required for the transmission of structural loads through deep water to a firm stratum. 5. When the soil conditions are such that a wash out, scour or erosion of the soil may occur from underneath a shallow foundation, pile foundation is required. 6. Piles are used to transfer the load beyond the zone of possible moisture changes in the soil. This is because compressible soils such as loess have breakdown of structures accompanied by a sudden decrease in void ratio when there is an increase in water content. 7. In case of expansive soils such as black cotton soil which swell and shrink as the water content changes, pile foundation is employed so as to transfer the load below the active zone 8. In some structures which are obviously subject to uplift, Piles are used in the foundation. Examples of such structures are transmission towers, off-shore platforms etc. 9. To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and the natural frequency of the system. 10. When the superstructure loads are very large and shallow foundations can’t bear them CHAPTER THREE 3. 0CLASSIFICATION OF PILES Piles may be classified as long or short in accordance with the L/d ratio of the pile (where L = length, d = diameter of pile). A short pile behaves as a rigid body and rotates as a unit under Lateral loads. The load transferred to the tip of the pile bears a significant proportion of the total vertical load on the top. In the case of a long pile, the length beyond a particular depth loses its significance under lateral loads, but when subjected to vertical load, the frictional load on the sides of the pile bears a significant part to the total load. Piles may further be classified as vertical piles or inclined piles. Vertical piles are normally used to carry mainly vertical loads and very little lateral load. When piles are inclined at an angle to the vertical, they are called batter piles or raker piles. Further classifications and those which will be reviewed in this term-paper are: a) Constitutive material b) Mode of load transfer c) Method of construction d) Their use e) The displacement of soil 3. 1 MATERIAL USED Timber piles Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches carefully trimmed off, usually treated with a preservative, and driven with the small end as a point. Occasionally the large end is driven for special purposes as in very soft soil where the soil will flow back against the shaft and with the butt resting on a firm stratum for increased bearing. The tip may be provided with a metal driving shoe when the pile is to penetrate hard or gravelly soils; otherwise it may be cut either square or with some point. Generally there are limitations on the size of the tip and butt end as well as on the misalignment that can be tolerated. Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have been attacked by insects. For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the tip should be greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a diameter of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and should not be driven into firm ground as this can easily damage the pile. Keeping the timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against decay and putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting timber piles. Driving of timber piles usually results in the crushing of the fibres on the head (or brooming) which can be somewhat controlled by using a driving cap, or ring around the butt. The usual maximum design load per pile does not exceed 250 KN. Timber piles are usually less expensive in places where timber is plentiful. Concrete piles a) Precast Concrete Piles Piles in this category are formed in a central casting yard to the specified length, cured, and then shipped to the construction site. If space is available and a sufficient quantity of piles needed, a casting yard may be provided at the site to reduce transportation costs. Precast piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be prestressed. Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during pickup and transport to the site and bending moments from lateral loads and to provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed during driving. The design procedures can be found in any text on reinforced-concrete design. However temporary stresses from handling and driving (tensile) may be used that are on the order of 50 percent larger than the allowable concrete design stresses. The minimum pile reinforcement should be 1 percent. Usually of square, triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in short length in one metre intervals between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-caste so that they can be easily connected together in order to reach to the required length. This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to help withstand both handling and driving stresses. Maximum load on a prestressed concrete pile is approximately 2000 KN and on precast piles 1000 KN. The optimum load range is 400 to 600 kN. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming more popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required. b) Driven and Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles A cast-in-place pile is formed by drilling a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete. The hole may be drilled (as in caissons), or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground. The casing may be driven using a mandrel, after which withdrawal of the mandrel empties the casing. The casing may also be driven with a driving tip on the point, providing a shell that is ready for filling with concrete immediately, or the casing may be driven open-end, the soil entrapped in the casing being jetted1 out after the driving is completed. Various methods with slightly different end results are available and patented. Note that they are basically of three types: (1) shell or cased, (2) shell-less (uncased), or (3) pedestal types. Two of the main types used in the UK are: West’s shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced concrete tubes, about 1 m long, are threaded on to a steel mandrel and driven into the ground after a concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the shells. Once the shells have been driven to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and reinforced concrete inserted in the core. Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm. Franki Pile: A steel tube is erected vertically over the place where the pile is to be driven, and about a metre depth of gravel is placed at the end of the tube. A drop hammer, 1500 to 4000kg mass, compacts the aggregate into a solid plug which then penetrates the soil and takes the steel tube down with it. When the required depth has been achieved the tube is raised slightly and the aggregate broken out. Dry concrete is now added and hammered until a bulb is formed. Reinforcement is placed in position and more dry concrete is placed and rammed until the pile top comes up to ground level. Steel piles These members are usually rolled HP shapes or pipe piles. Wide-flange beams or I beams may also be used; however, the H shape is especially proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected. In the HP pile the flanges and web are of equal thickness; the standard W and I shapes usually have a thinner web than flange. Pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes, which may be driven either open-end or closed-end. Closed-end pipe piles are usually filled with concrete after driving. Open-end piles may be filled, but this is often not necessary, because there will be a dense soil plug at some depth below the top (and visible). Here it may only be necessary to jet out some of the upper soil plug to the necessary depth for any reinforcing bars required for bending (and to pump out the water used for jetting), before filling the remainder of the pile cavity with concrete. Concrete in only this shaft depth may be necessary for dowel bars. The HP pile is a small-volume displacement pile since the cross-sectional area is not very large. A plug tends to form between the flanges at greater depths, however, so the bottom several meters may remold the soil on the order of the volume of the plug. An open-end pipe is also considered a small-volume displacement pile; however, a plug also forms inside with a depth one or more meters below the outside ground level probably from a combination of inside perimeter friction and driving vibrations. From the depth at which the plug stabilizes (not visible during driving because of the pile cap and hammer interference) to the final driving depth, the lower soil may be remolded based on the volume of the plug and not the actual area of the pipe section. Steel Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar coating or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works. It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0. 2-0. 5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year Composite piles A composite pile comprises the combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level. This type is rarely used used in practice due to the difficulty encountered in the provision of a proper joint. . 2 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behavior a) End bearing piles (point bearing piles) b) Friction piles (floating piles) c) Combination of friction and end-bearing piles End bearing piles (Point bearing piles) These piles transfer their load through their bottom tip on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive mo st of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. artificial intelligence EssayOnce the unit skin friction has been estimated, the shaft resistance is determined from equation For cohesive soils, the ultimate load can be determined by adding the point resistance and the shaft resistance equation (5. 1) Thus; As the clay gets remoulded when the pile is driven, this factor must be taken into account when estimating the load carrying capacity. The remoulded strength is always less than the undisturbed strength, but because of thixotropy, the strength depends upon the consolidation characteristics of the soil and the rate of dissipation of excess water pressure. When using equation , the value of c and c should be judiciously evaluated. 5. 2 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION AND ITS EFFECT ON PILES When the fill starts consolidating under its own overburden pressure, it develops a drag on the surface of the pile. This drag on the surface of the pile is called negative friction. Negative friction may develop if the fill material is loose cohesionless soil. Negative friction can also occur when fill is placed over peat or a soft clay stratum. The superimposed loading on such compressible stratum causes heavy settlement of the fill with consequent drag on piles. Negative friction may develop by lowering the ground water which increases the effective stress causing consolidation of the soil with resultant settlement and friction forces being developed on the pile. Negative friction must be allowed when considering the factor of safety on the ultimate carrying capacity of a pile. The factor of safety, Fs, where negative friction is likely to occur may be written as Computation of Negative Friction on a Single Pile The magnitude of negative friction Fn for a single pile in a fill may be taken as (a) For cohesive soils . b) For cohesionless soils Where Ln = length of piles in the compressible material, s = shear strength of cohesive soils in the fill, P = perimeter of pile, K = earth pressure coefficient normally lies between the active and the passive earth pressure coefficients, ? = angle of wall friction which may vary from ? /2 to ?. Negative Friction on Pile Groups When a group of pils passes through a compressible fill, the negative fri ction, Fn , on the group may be found by any of the following methods (a) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. i (b) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ii where n = number of piles in the group, = unit weight of soil within the pile group to a depth Ln, P = perimeter of pile group, Ag sectional area of pile group within the perimeter Pg , s = shear strength of soil along the perimeter of the group. Equation i gives the negative friction forces of the group as equal to the sum of the friction forces of all the single piles. Eq ii assumes the possibility of block shear failure along the perimeter of the group which includes the volume of the soil yLnA enclosed in the group. The maximum value obtained from Eqs i or ii should be used in the design. OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING ULTIMATE LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A SINGLE VERTICAL PILE The ultimate bearing capacity, Qu, of a single vertical pile may also be determined by any of the following methods: 1. By the use of SPT and CPT values. 2. By field load tests. 3. By dynamic method. 5. 3DYNAMIC FORMULAE The load-carrying capacity of a driven pile can be estimated from the resistance against penetration developed during the driving operation. The methods give fairly good results only in the case of free-draining sands and hard clays in which high pore pressure does not develop during the driving of the piles. In saturated fine-grained soils, high pore water pressure develops during the driving operation and the strength of the soil is considerably changed and the methods do not give reliable results. The methods cannot be used for submerged, uniform fine sands which may become loose enough to become quick temporarily and show a much less resistance. The dynamic formulae are based on the assumption that the kinetic energy delivered by the hammer during driving operation is equal to the work done on the pile. Thus; Where W – weight of the hammer h – Height of the ram drop – Efficiency of the pile hammer R – Pile resistance taken to equal Qu S – Pile penetration per blow In equation above, no allowance has been made for the loss of energy during driving operation, loss caused by elastic contraction of the pile, soil, pile cap, cushion and due to the inertia of the pile. Some energy is also lost due to generation of heat. Various formulae have been proposed, which basically differ only in the methods for accounting of the energy losses, as described below: 5. 3. 1Engineering News Record Formulae According to Engineering News Record (ENR) Formulae (1888), the ultimate load is given by Where S – penetration of the pile per hammer blow C – constant ( for drop hammer, C = 2. 54cm and for steam hammer, C = 0. 245) In equation (5. 17), the product can be replaced by the rated energy of hammer (En) in KN-cm. Thus, The efficiency ? h of the drop hammer is generally 0. 7 and 0. 9, and that for a single-acting and a double-acting hammer is between 0. 75 and 0. 85. For diesel hammer, it usually lies between 0. 80 and 0. 90. A factor of safety of 6 is usually recommended. However, the pile load tests reveal that the actual factor varies between 23 and 30. The formula is, therefore, not dependable. Modified formula The Engineering News Record Formulae has been modified recently. In the modified formula, the energy losses in the hammer system and that due to impact are considered. According to this formula; Where P – weight of pile e Coefficient of restitution ?h -hammer efficiency The hammer efficiency (? h) depends upon various factors, such as pile driving equipment, driving procedure, type of pile and the ground conditions. For drop hammers, it is usually taken between 0. 75 and 1. 0; for single acting hammers between 0. 75 and 0. 85; for double-acting or differential hammer, ? 0. 85 and for diesel hammer, ? = 0. 85 to 1. 0. The representative values of the coefficient of restitution (e) are as follows: Broomed timber pile=0. 0 Good timber pile =0. 25 Driving cap with timber dolly on steel pile =0. 3 Driving cap with plastic dolly on steel pile=0. 5 Helmet with composite plastic dolly and packing on R. C. C. pile = 0. 4 5. 3. 2. Hiley Formula Hiley (1925, 1930) gave a formula which takes into account various losses. Where ? h efficiency of hammer blow H height of free fall of the room or hammer S final set or penetration per blow C Sum of temporary elastic composition of the pile, dolly, packings and ground (= C1 + C2 + C3), C1 = temporary compression of dolly and packings (= 1. 77 R/A), when the driving is without dolly, = 9. 05 R/A when the driving is with short dolly), C2 = temporary compression of pile (= 0. 657 RD/A), C3 = temporary compression of ground (= 3. 55 R/A). D Length of the pile A Cross-sectional area of pile P Pile resistance The efficiency of the hammer blow (? h) depends upon the weight of hammer (w), weight of pile, anvil and helmet follower (P) and the coefficient of restitution (e). ) For , b) For , The coefficient of restitution (e) varies from zero for a deteriorated condition of the head of pile to 0. 5 for a steel ram of double acting hammer striking on steel anvil and driving a reinforced concrete pile. For a C. I. ram of a single – acting or drop hammer striking on the head of R. C. C. pile, e = 0. 4 and that striking on a well-conditioned driving cap and helmet with h ard wood on R. C. C. pile, e = 0. 25 (IS:2911 – 1979). 5. 3. 3Danish Formula According to Danish Formula (1929) Where In which So=elastic compression of pile D=Length of pile A=Cross-sectional area E=Modules of elasticity of pile material The allowable load is found by taking of factor of safety of 3 or 4. Equation (5. 24) can also be used to determine the final set (S) per blow Taking . Where 5. 4Comments On The Use Of Dynamic Formulae: 1. Detailed investigations carried out by Vesic (1967) on deep foundations in granular soils indicate that the Engineering News Record Formula applicable to drop hammers. In order to obtain better agreement between the one computed and observed loads, Vesic suggests the following values for the coefficient C. For steel pipe piles, C = 1 cm. For precast concrete piles C = 1. 5 cm. 2. The tests carried out by Vesic in granular soils indicate that Hileys formula does not give consistent results. The values computed from are sometimes higher and sometimes lower than the observed values. 3. Dynamic formulae in general have limited value in pile foundation work mainly because the dynamic resistance of soil does not represent the static resistance, and because often the results obtained from the use of dynamic equations are of questionable dependability. 4. Dynamic formulae could be used with more confidence in freely draining materials such as coarse sand. If the pile is driven to saturated loose fine sand and silt, there is every possibility of development of liquefaction which reduces the bearing capacity of the pile. 5. Dynamic formulae are not recommended for computing allowable loads of piles driven into cohesive soils. In cohesive soils, the resistance to driving increases through the sudden increase in stress in pore water and decreases because of the decreased value of the internal friction between soil and pile because of pore water. These two oppositely directed forces do not lend themselves to analytical treatment and as such the dynamic penetration resistance to pile driving has no relationship to static bearing capacity. There is another effect of pile driving in cohesive soils. During driving the soil becomes remolded and the shear strength of the soil is reduced considerably. Though there will be a regaining of shear strength after a lapse of some days after the driving operation, this will not be reflected in the resistance value obtained from the dynamic formulae. 5. IN-SITU PENETRATION TEST FOR PILE CAPACITY 5. 5. Standard penetration Test. The load carrying capacity of a pile can be estimated from the standard penetration test value (N). i. For driven piles in sand, the unit tip resistance (qp) is related to the uncorrected blow count (N) near the pile point (Meyerhof 1976). Q p = 40N (D/B) ; 400N Where qp = point resistance (Kn/m2), D = Length of pile, B = width (diameter) of pile. The value of qp is u sually limited to 400N. The average unit frictional resistance (fs) is related to the average value of the blow count (N). For high displacement piles, fs = 2. 0N kNm2 For low displacement piles, fs = 1. N kNm2 Where N is average of uncorrected N-value along the length of the piles. ii. For bored piles in sand, qp = 14 N (Db/B) kN/m2 Where Db = actual penetration into the granular soil. For bored piles in sand, the unit frictional resistance (fs) is given by fs = 0. 67 N kNm2 5. 5. 2Dutch cone test: Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit point resistance (qp) and unit skin traction (fs) of driven piles to the cone point resistance. (qc) Point resistance Unit skin friction (a) fs (dense sand) = qc / 200 (b) fs (loose sand) = qc / 400 (c) fc (silt) = qc / 150 . 5. 3 PILE LOAD TEST The load test may be carried out either on a driven pile or a cast-in-situ pile. Load tests may be made either on a single pile or a group of piles. Load tests on a pile group are very costly and may be undertake n only in very important projects. Pile load tests on a single pile or a group of piles are conducted for the determination of 1. Vertical load bearing capacity, 2. Uplift load capacity, 3. Lateral load capacity. Generally load tests are made to determine the bearing capacity and to establish the load settlement relationship under a compressive load. The other two types of tests may be carried out only when piles are required to resist large uplift or lateral forces. Usually pile foundations are designed with an estimated capacity which is determined from a thorough study of the site conditions. At the beginning of construction, load tests are made for the purpose of verifying the adequacy of the design capacity. If the test results show an inadequate factor of safety or excessive settlement, the design must be revised before construction is under way. Load tests may be carried out either on 1. A working pile or 2. A test pile. A working pile is a pile driven or cast-in-situ along with the other piles to carry the loads from the superstructure. The maximum test load on such piles should not exceed one and a half times the design load. A test pile is a pile which does not carry the loads coming from the structure. The maximum load that can be put on such piles may be about 2J/2 times the design load or the load imposed must be such as to give a total settlement not less than one-tenth the pile diameter. Method of Carrying Out Vertical Pile Load Test A vertical pile load test assembly is shown in Fig. 15. 19(a). It consists of 1. An arrangement to take the reaction of the load applied on the pile head, 2. A hydraulic jack of sufficient capacity to apply load on the pile head, and 3. A set of three dial gauges to measure settlement of the pile head. Load Application A load test may be of two types: 1. Continuous load test. 2. Cyclic load test. In the case of a continuous load test, continuous increments of load are applied to the pile head. Settlement of the pile head is recorded at each load level. In the case of the cyclic load test, the load is raised to a particular level, then reduced to zero, again raised to a higher level and reduced to zero. Settlements are recorded at each increment or decrement of load. Cyclic load tests help to separate frictional load from point load. The total elastic recovery or settlement Se, is due to 1. The total plastic recovery of the pile material, 2. Elastic recovery of the soil at the tip of the pile, Sg The total settlement S due to any load can be separated into elastic and plastic settlements by carrying out cyclic load tests as shown in Fig. 15. 19(b). A pile loaded to Ql gives a total settlement Sr When this load is reduced to zero, there is an elastic recovery which is equal to Sel. This elastic recovery is due to the elastic compression of the pile material and the soil. The net settlement or plastic compression is S r The pile is loaded again from zero to the next higher load Q2 and reduced to zero thereafter. The corresponding settlements may be found as before. The method of loading and unloading may be repeated as before. Allowable Load from Single Pile Load Test Data There are many methods by which allowable loads on a single pile may be etermined by making use of load test data. If the ultimate load can be determined from load-settlement curves, allowable loads are found by dividing the ultimate load by a suitable factor of safety which varies from 2 to 3. A factor of safety of 2. 5 is normally recommended. A few of the methods that are useful for the determination of ultimate or allowable loads on a single pile are given below: 1. The ultimate load, Qu, can be determined as the abscissa of the point where the curved part of the load-settlement curve changes to a falling straight line. . Qu is the abscissa of the point of intersection of the initial and final tangents of the load-settlement curve 3. The allowable load Q is 50 percent of the ultimate load at which the total settlement amounts to one-tenth of the diameter of the pile for uniform diameter piles. the manner in which the foundation piles are to be installed. The test piles should be atleast 3 B or 2. 5 m clear from the anchor piles. 4. The allowable load Qa is sometimes taken as equal to two-thirds of the load which causes a total settlement of 12 mm. 5. The allowable load Qa is sometimes taken as equal to two-thirds of the load which causes a net (plastic) settlement of 6 mm. DETERMINATION OF ULTIMATE LOAD FROM LOAD SETTLEMENT CURVES If pile groups are loaded to failure, the ultimate load of the group, Q u, may be found by any one of the first two methods mentioned above for single piles. However, if the groups are subjected to only one and a half-times the design load of the group, the allowable load on the group cannot be found on the basis of 12 or 6 mm settlement criteria applicable to single piles. In the case of a group with piles spaced at less than 6 to 8 times the pile diameter, the stress interaction of the adjacent piles affects the settlement considerably. The settlement criteria applicable to pile groups should be the same as that applicable to shallow foundations at design loads. OTHER TYPES OF PILE LOAD TESTS 1. Constant rate of penetration test. In a constant-rate of penetration tests, the load on the pile is continuously increased to maintain a constant rate of penetration (from 0. 25 to 5 mm per minutes). The force reqiur3ed to achieve that rate of penetration is recorded, and a load settlement curve is drawn. The ultimate curve can be determined from the curve. 1) Routine Load test. This test is carried out on a working pile with a view to determine the settlement corresponding to the allowable load. As the working pile would ultimately form a part of the foundation, the maximum load is limited to one and half times the safe load or upto the load which gives a total settlement of 12 mm. 2) Cyclic Load test. The load is carried out for separation of skin friction and point resistance of a pile. In the test, an incremental load is repeatedly applied and removed. 3) Lateral Load test. The test is conducted to determine the safe lateral load on a pile. A hydraulic jack is generally introduced between two pile to apply a lateral load. The reaction may also be suitably obtained from some other support. The test may also be carried out by applying a lateral pull by a suitable set-up. 4) Pull out test. The test is carried out to determine the safe tension of a pile. In the set-up, the hydraulic jack rests against a frame attached to the top of the test pile such that the pile gets pulled up. CHAPTER SIX GROUP ACTION OF PILES. A pile is not used singularly beneath a column or a wall, because it is extremely difficult to drive the pile absolutely vertical and to place the foundation exactly over its centre over its centre line. If eccentric loading result, the connection between the pile and the column may break or the pile may fail structurally because of bending stresses. In actual practice, structural load are supported by several piles acting as a group. For columns, a minimum of three piles in a triangular pattern are used. For walls, piles are installed in a staggered arrangement on both sides of its center line. The loads are usually transferred to the pile group through a reinforced concrete slab, structurally tied to the pile tops such as that the piles act as one unit. The slab is known as a pile cap. The load acts on the pile cap which distributes the load tom the piles. The load carrying capacity of a pile group is not necessarily equal to the sum of the capacity of the individual piles. Estimation of the load-carrying capacity of a pile group is a complicated problem. When the piles are spaced a sufficient distance apart, the group capacity may approach the sum of the individual capacities. On the other hand, if the piles are closely spaced, the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil may overlap, and this may reduce the load-carrying capacity is limited by the group action. The efficiency () of a group of pile is defined as the ratio of the ultimate load of the group to the sum of individual ultimate loads. Or Where Qg(u) = ultimate load of the group, Q(u) = ultimate load of the individual pile, N = Number of piles in the group. Thus the group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in the group at which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single pile. The group efficiency depends upon the spacing of the piles. Ideally, the spacing should be sure that the efficiency is 100%. Generally, the centre to centre spacing is kept between 2. 5 B and 3. 5 B, where B is the diameter of the pile. The methods for the determi

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Media and Public Perceptions of crime

Media and Public Perceptions of crime Crime stories and representations are, and have always been, a popular focus of the mass media. The percentage of media content that is constituted by crime images and stories obviously will depend on the definitions of crime used. A glimpse at the television guide, the movies listings in the cinema, or press headlines, will highlight both the interest the general population has in crime and criminals, and the key role the media play in describing all features of criminal behaviour. People are excited with crime and justice (Howitt, 1998). From films, books, newspapers, magazines, television broadcasts, to everyday talks, we are continuously participating in crime talk. A large amount of this crime will be fictional, others, real life, and our enthusiasm for reading and watching about both seems to be evident. Television documentaries, news programmes and local or national newspapers emphasise and discuss crime and criminal justice issues on an everyday basis. Stories about crime are a more limited proportion of news, varying according to medium (e.g. radio, television, or print journalism) and market (e.g. quality or popular journalism). In this chapter we will analyse how the media influence public opinion through social cognitive theory and information processing theory. The publics knowledge and understanding of crime, criminal justice, police forces and police investigations, is often derived from the media and is greatly based on what they have watched or heard through various media forms (Jewkes, 2011). More generally, it is not feasible for people to know everything about society through their own experience thus the media has the role of informing and entertaining people. It is important to say that several studies have found a correlation between people views about crime and the criminal justice system, and the media. Dorfman (2001) found that 76 percent of the public said they modulated their opinions about crime from what they see or read in the news compared to those who get their primary information on crime from personal experience at 22 percent. It is not surprising that the academic interest in the field of criminology and criminal justice is growing as studies showed the popular media and general public interest in this area has the hi ghest percentage (Jewkes ,2011). Heath and Gilbert (1996) initiated that the association among media productions and offence is contingent on the features of the communication and the viewers. Production of great amounts of neighbourhood offence news creates enlarged fear between the outsized public, (Brillon, 1987; Sheley and Ashkins, 1981) whilst the presentation of great sums of non-local offence news has the contradictory result by construction the local audience feel safer (Liska and Baccaglini, 1990). Also, Chiricos et al (2000) found out that local and nationwide news are connected to fear of felony. The result of neighbouring news on fear of crime is stronger for people in elevated offence locations and persons who have passed through victimisation. Public perspectives toward police are in general positive (Huang and Vaughn, 1996). Nevertheless, there are a small number of studies that considered the medias control on peoples ratings of police force efficiency. A large amoun t of the literature concentrates on media depictions of police officers and results expose two contradictory views. Some researchers suggest that the police are displayed positively in the media, whilst other study argues that the police are unenthusiastically portrayed in the media (Pollak and Kubrin, 2007). Police presentations are often over-dramatised and romanticised by imaginary television felony dramas while the news media display the police as daring, qualified crime fighters (Surette, 1998; Reiner, 1985). In television crime dramas, the mainstreams of crimes are solved and unlawful suspects are successfully detained (Dominick, 1973; Estep and MacDonald, 1984; Carlson, 1985; Kooistra et al. 1998, Zillman and Wakshlag, 1985). Likewise, news presentations have a tendency to overstate the percentage of crimes that consequence in catch which projects a representation that police are more successful than official statistics show (Sacco and Fair, 1988; Skogan and Maxfield, 1981; Marsh, 1991; Roshier, 1973). The sympathetic vision of policing is partially a result of a police forces people relations scheme. Coverage of practical police actions creates a representation of the police as effectual and well-organised investigators of crime (Christensen, Schmidt and Henderson, 1982). Therefor e, a constructive police display strengthens usual opinions to law and order that engage enlarged police attendance, cruel penalties and rising police power (Sacco, 1995). Modern offences-solving shows like CSI, Law Order and a range of spin-offs has obviously increased public cognition of the function that science can take part in solving crimes and gathering proof which may be used to help convict the criminals. Also, numerals of researchers suggest that a symbiotic association subsists among news media workers and the police. It is argued that the police and the media involve in a commonly advantageous connection (Jewkes, 2011). The media wants the police to give them with rapid, trustworthy sources of offence information, while the police have a vested attention in retaining a constructive public image (Ericson, Baranek, and Chan, 1987; Fishman, 1981; Hall et al, 1978). Nonetheless, other researchers suggest that the police are not displayed completely positive in the news media. For example, Surette (1998) argues that docu-dramas and news small programs symbolise the police as heroes that fight bad people, up till now publish and broadcast news exemplify the police as unproductive and useless. Likewise, Graber (1980) argues that the wide-ranging public appreciates police presentation more positively compared with judges and alteration. In English courtrooms media coverage and the use of m icrophones or videos are not allowed (Howitt, 1998). However, Graber (1980) suggests that the media gives tiny information to critic police and that the news media centre on unhelpful criticism rather than helpful or triumphant crime prevention exertions. Basically, most media crime is penalised, but policemen are infrequently the heroes (Lichter and Lichter, 1983). Research examining the agenda-setting function of the news media has undergone a dramatic re-conceptualisation in recent years. No longer is research based on the nation noted by Cohen that the press may not be successful in telling us what to think but is stunningly successful in telling us what to think about (Cohen, 1963, p.13). Indeed, researchers now argue that, under certain circumstances, the news media do tell people what to think by providing the public with an agenda of attributes a list of characteristics of important newsmakers. Individuals mentally link these mediated attributes to the newsmakers to a simila r degree in which the attributes are mentioned in the media (Marsh, Ian, Melville and Gaynor, 2008). The Social Cognitive Theory is also called social learning, observational learning, or Modelling. This theory has its roots in psychology. This communication theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. His idea was that people watch and learn by others, specifically they perform and imitate behaviours through observation by other people. In todays days increasingly media- society, the mass media communication becomes the basis of observational learning. In order to appropriately learn from the media a person must be exhibited to the media, then be able to encode and memorise the event, and finally be able to decode their view of the media into a suitable reply. This theory deals partly with media and how it affects behaviours. The modelling theory is mostly applied to the consequences of aggressive media on behaviour, but it can be applied to other variables like sex, pro social, or purchasing behaviour. Because of the powerful role the mass media get in the world, considera te the psychosocial mechanisms throughout representative communication effects human thought, affect, and action is of importance. Social cognitive theory provides an agentic conceptual framework in which to examine the decisive factors and mechanisms of such effects. Human behaviour has often been explicated in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behaviour is formed and forced either by ecological influences or by inside moods. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial operations in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). In this alternative view of self and society, individual factors in the figure of cognitive, affective, and biological events; behavioural patterns; and environmental events all function as interacting factors that influence each other (Bandura, 1986, 2001a). People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-determining, not just reactive organisms formed by ecological events or inside forces. Human self-development and al teration are enclosed in social systems. Furthermore, personal organisation functions within a wide system of socio-structural influences. In these agentic communications, people are producers and also products of societal regimes. Private group and social arrangement function as co determinants in an included causal structure rather than as an intangible duality. Seen from the socio-cognitive viewpoint, peoples nature is a huge capability that can be shaped by straight and observational experience into a range of shapes within natural limits. To say that a main distinctive mark of people is their exceptional elasticity is does not to mean that they have no character or that they appear structure- less (Midgley, 1978). The flexibility, which is inherent to the nature of humans, depends on neurophysiological mechanisms and structures that have developed over time. These higher neural systems specialised for dealing out, remaining, and employing coded information give the ability for the very abilities that are noticeably human-genital symbolisation, foresight, axiological self-arrangement, pensive self-consciousness, and symbolic message (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). Humans have developed a higher capability for observational learning that gives them the opportunity to enlarge their knowledge and skills quickly through information transferred by the rich range of models. Indeed, practically all behavioural, cognitive, and influencing learning from straight experience can be succeed representatively by observing peoples actions and its results for them (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal Zimmerman, 1978). A large amount of social learning derives either knowingly or unknowingly from models in ones direct surroundings. However, a large amount of information about people values, ways of thinking, and behaviour norms is acquired from the lengthy modelling in the symbolic setting of the mass media (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). The effects of media on the public can also be explained through information processing models which have been developed by cognitive psychologists (Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). Information-processing research suggests that people have cognitive constructions, called schemas, which organise peoples thinking (see chapter 2). A persons system of schemas stores independent faiths, attitudes, principles, and choices (Rokeach, 1973). The schemas are straight concentration to related information, driven its understanding and assessment, provide conclusions when information is absent or vague, and make easy its memory (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 173). Schemas do not select out all unknown or rough information, there are not filter of memory, they just help peoples mind to organise their thoughts. As Bennett (1981) argues, that information process, substantially fabricates parts of recognition and idealistic accusations and new Scholars have used many terms such as scripts, infere ntial sets, frames and prototypes to explain this situation. Information-processing theory identifies and assists clarify how stances derive from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples pre-existing beliefs. (Entman, 1989) The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus interferes with the implied model in much of the media research. People are vulnerable to considerable media effects, according to the information processing theory, despite of the autonomy model suggestions which support that people ignore the most new or dissonant media reports. In the information-processing viewpoint, a person first values a media report for salience. If salient, the person works out the news according to rotes established in the schema system. Processing may drive the person either to store the information or abandon it; if the information stored, people may adopt new beliefs or change old beliefs (Entman, 1989). Social Psychology and Media effects Social psychologists talk about conformity and they argue that people act as group and define things and form their opinions as group, as the majority do. It is possible that a person has a different opinion from the group but the influence that he or she receives is much more dynamic. Thus, people change their opinion about a subject to suit to groups opinion (Gross, 2010) People modify their opinion in response the information that they receive from others, also when people do not feel that they have the accurate perception about a subject they look to others to perceive the stimulus situation accurately. This is called informational social influence (Bordens and Horowitz, 2000) But sometimes people change perception in response to pressure to conform to a norm or in order to gain social approval and avoid rejection they agree with the group because of their power (Wren, 1999)

Religion in Public Schools :: Prayer in Public Schools

Religion in the Classroom In the past Religion was confined to the state now with religious freedom everything has changed or at least started to change. In order for religion to be in a private school now it is again trying to be in Public schools. People ask "why can't freedom to acknowledge god be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land?" In the past, a long time ago children always prayed before class started and before lunch. But things have changed, "in 1791 the separation of church and state" started. Although it was made clear about the separation of the two "as late as 1951 some twenty states permitted schools to begin the day by reading aloud a passage of the bible." Bu t that had to stop. People didn't have the same beliefs when it comes to religion, if a family absent even believe in god why should their child be forced to pray? On many different occasions questions similar to this one were brought up and complained about. That is what started it all real big. When complaining, arguing and fighting all started over the silent moment. In 1978 a few lawyers got together and considered a constitutional law. The original law said that public school teachers in gr ades 1-6 "shall announce that a period of silence, not to exceed one minute, shall be observed for meditation." This law did not work for long, because it still allowed oral prayer in public high schools. Later in 1981, the Alabama State Senator D onald G. Holmes successfully passed a bill that included all grades calling it "the moment of silence" this law said that "the teacher (was) to announce that the silent moment may be used for voluntary prayer." Although it would have to be si lent prayer. Even after this new law started the lawyers that were opposed to this were trying to say that students "do not have a right to pray in school" silently or otherwise because of growing impressions that affect their life. The silent mom ent supposedly "(forced) religion on children." I don't agree with that at all, if there has to be a moment of silence then any child can use that moment however he or she wants, it does not necessarily have to be used fro prayer. Usually "the chi ldren who have been brought up with prayer or some type of religion are usually proven to be better" kids.

Audism Unveiled Essay

Audism Unveiled Audism by it’s very definition is a negative or oppressive attitude towards deaf people by either deaf or hearing people and organizations, and a failure to accommodate them. This documentary really opened my eyes as to what deaf people have gone through since the beginning of time. They have been treated with prejudice and oppression. They have been looked down upon- as if they are some sort of â€Å"subhuman† not worthy of being classified as a normal person because of the fact that they cannot hear. Audism goes under the same category as racism, sexism, discrimination, etc. In the movie, â€Å"Audism Unveiled,† they were many testimonials of different deaf people explaining their stories of oppression simply because of the fact that they’re deaf or hard of hearing. Deaf people often have difficulty communicating with the hearing world and thus, they have been looked down upon with sympathy. They need to be healed. They’re disabled. They can’t have the same jobs as hearing people. It’s sickening how deaf people get treated. There was a deaf man in the film who explained how his parents would take him to a religious shrine and have a priest and his mother pray for him so his deafness can be â€Å"healed.† It, obviously, did nothing and he is still deaf and he seems happy that way. Another deaf man exclaimed how his parents made him go to a medicine man in a smoke filled hut, hoping that this kind of ritual will help him. But since he did not take the ritual seriously, his parents said that’s why it didn’t work. But, religion is not going to help the situation anymore than screaming at them will. But some stories were sad: A deaf man explained how his mother never learned to sign even though the man has been deaf since childhood. One day, when she was in her 80’s, she asked him if she should have learned sign language, baffled, the man asked why she was asking this. But she shrugged it off, and a year later, she was on her death bed, trying to write a note to her son and mid-write, she passed away. The man never knew what her last words to her son were going to be. Now, he is an advocate for parents of deaf  children to learn sign language so that no one would ever have to experience what he had to. I think that all parents with deaf children should embrace their child and their new culture and learn the language that is most easy for their child to communicate in. Most deaf children feel lonely and abandoned from their families because no one ever bothers to include them into family conversations. Whenever the deaf person would ask what’s going on, they would say â€Å"Oh we’ll tell you later.† Always the same thing and deaf people are tired of it. They want to know now and be included! It’s not fair that they have to be left out just because they’re deaf. It causes depression and resentment in the deaf person when the family constantly excludes the deaf family member. In some situations, deafness was viewed as evil. One man said that his aunt told him that he must have been a bad man in his past-life and as punishment, he was born deaf in this life-time. Hearing people do view being deaf as a misfortune, but that does not justify the way that they get treated by hearing people. I think it’s horrible how they are viewed as unable. I would hate to imagine someone treating me like I’m not able because I’m Hispanic or because I’m gay. It would tear me apart and I’m sure most deaf people feel the same way. Audism needs to be a bigger issue among hearing people and they need to know that being deaf is not a handicap, deaf people are not looking for sympathy. They want to be treated as equals.

Learn How Insects Hear

Learn How Insects Hear Sound is created by vibrations carried through the air. By definition, an animals capacity to hear means that it has one or more organs that perceived and interpreted those air vibrations. Most insects have one or more sensory organs that are sensitive to vibrations transmitting through the air. Not only do insects hear, but they may actually be more sensitive than other animals to sound vibrations. Insect sense and interpret sounds in order to communicate with other insects and to navigate their environments. Some insects even listen for the sounds of predators in order to avoid being eaten by them.   There are four different types of auditory organs that insects may possess.   Tympanal Organs Many hearing insects have a pair of tympanal organs that vibrate when they catch sound waves in the air. As the name hints, these organs catch the sound and vibrate in much the way that a tympani, the large drum used in the percussion section of an orchestra, does it when its drum head is struck by a percussion mallet.   Like the tympani, the tympanal organ consists of a membrane tightly stretched on a frame over an air-filled cavity. When the percussionist hammers on the membrane of the tympani, it vibrates and produces a sound; an insects tympanal organ vibrates in much the same way as it catches sound waves in the air. This mechanism is exactly the same as found in the eardrum organ of humans and other animal species. Many insects have the ability to hear in a manner quite similar to the way we do it.   An insect also has a special receptor called the chordotonal organ, which senses the  vibration of the tympanal organ and translates the sound into a nerve impulse. Insects that use tympanal organs to hear include grasshoppers and crickets, cicadas, and some butterflies and moths. Johnstons Organ For some  insects, a group of sensory cells on the antennae form a receptor  called the Johnstons organ, which  collects auditory information. These group of sensory cells is found on the pedicel, which is the second segment from the base of the antennae, and it detects vibration of the segment(s) above. Mosquitoes and fruit flies are examples of insects that hear by using the Johnstons organ. In fruit flies, the organ is used to sense the wing-beat frequencies of mates, and in hawk moths, it is thought to assist with stable flight. In honeybees, Johnstons organ assists in the location of food sources.   Johnstons organ is a type of receptor found only no  invertebrates other than insects. It is named for the physician Christopher Johnston (1822-1891), a professor of surgery at the University of Maryland who discovered the organ. Setae The larvae of Lepidoptera  (butterflies and moths)  and  Orthoptera  (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.) use small stiff hairs, called setae, to sense  sound  vibrations. Caterpillars often respond to vibrations in the setae by exhibiting defensive behaviors. Some will stop moving completely, while others may contract their muscles and rear up in a fighting posture. Setae hairs are found on many species, but not all of them use the organs to sense sound vibrations.   Labral Pilifer A structure in the mouths of certain hawkmoths enables them to hear ultrasonic sounds, such as those produced by echolocating bats. The labral pilifer, a tiny hair-like organ, is believed to sense vibrations at specific frequencies. Scientists have noted a distinctive movement of the insects tongue when they subject  captive hawkmoths to sounds at these particular frequencies. In flight, the hawkmoths can avoid a pursuing bat by using the labral pilifer to detect their echolocation signals.

Definition Essay on #8220;My Best Friend#8221; Who Is That

Definition Essay on #8220;My Best Friend#8221; Who Is That Friends maintain immense abandon of sources to develop a good relationship between two people. As we general say friends’ interpretations must be honesty, straightforward to each other. They ought to agree each other’s opinions. They support self-awareness to each other. They don’t walk away when troubles come to them but to give them hands. Such civilization of friend identities put my self into a den deeper and deeper. The more I experience the more I recess friends are definitely brutal, deceived and distrustful. According to my empirical of self-esteem in friendship that I have realized friends who take an advantages form each other. They are relentlessly impact their sentiments. They approach you when they need you, but they never regard you when you need them. There are too many evidences that show how and why my friends betrayed me all the time. The next paragraphs will talk about one of my friends. Through out the incidence has occurred me that I am thoroughly assured friends are selfish, distrustful, foolish, and sorrowful. My past memory has frequency consecutively emerged in my brain that my best friend has betrayed me again and again. Since I was in high school that I have met several best friends, one of them are the special one. We went out together, drunk together. Even we shared the money we had. Such of happiness made us even closely like blood brother. We were all well known to each of our parents, because we were intimacy doing things together. Not only this but we also helped each other when there fights beside us. On the year of my age18, when was my last year to graduate from high school. At the same time there also was the high provoking promotion reflected every one to get an opposite partners which we call boyfriends or girlfriends. So I carried this thought to look for one who I got was I like the most, she has a lot of things some other girls don’t have. I had been together nearly a year. During that year my best friend was also well known about her who we went out together and played together. He regarded us all the time, what she was good at or the things we did together. One day I stumbled on they were together one night. We gradually broke up†¦. Furthermore, not only this but also he cheated on me when I immigrated to the Unite States. He cheated on me of he was going to buy a house for his mother who was old and sick. Such faith of parents influenced me to lend amount of money to him. However, later I found out he got the money to gamble and loosed it. From that time on he broke his promise to pay me money back and has not even give a call. Confronting frustrations that I recessed the reasons why my friends had chosen to cheat on me, because I was too dependable on my friends. I shared my secrets and feeling. I sacrificed most of things which have never thought to achieve them back. Being excessive in believe people who never shared their secrets or thoughts with me. Profoundly we concern if we really find ones who we can trust on. Then we should treasure them but not to destroy them. Friends are variety groups of people who help each other, comfort to each other, and encourage each other. However, they can destroy our feeling of human dignities. They can grab every thing you have and gone for permanently. Friends could bring happiness or could give hand to you to be succeeded. But at the same time it also can be revise of the opposite sides or make you lost even more than he or she helped you gain. There has such proverb saying â€Å"the more love you receive the more pain you pay† it is truer than ever since. Friends maintain immense abandon of sources to develop a good relationship between two people. As we general say friends’ interpretations must be honesty, straightforward to each other. They should agree each other’s opinions. They support self-awareness to each other. They don’t walk away when troubles come to them but to give them hands. Such civilization of friend identities put my self into a den deeper and deeper. The more I experience the more I recess friends are definitely brutal, deceived and distrustful. According to my empirical of self-esteem in friendship that I have realized friends who take an advantages form each other. They are relentlessly impact their sentiments. They approach you when they need you, but they never regard you when you need them. There are too many evidences that show how and why my friends betrayed me all the time. The next paragraphs will talk about one of my friends. Through out the incidence has occurred me that I am thoroughly assured friends are selfish, distrustful, foolish, and sorrowful. My past memory has frequency consecutively emerged in my brain that my best friend has betrayed me again and again. Since I was in high school that I have met several best friends, one of them are the special one. We went out together, drunk together. Even we shared the money we had. Such of happiness made us even closely like blood brother. We were all well known to each of our parents, because we were intimacy doing things together. Not only this but we also helped each other when there fights beside us. On the year of my age18, when was my last year to graduate from high school. At the same time there also was the high provoking promotion reflected every one to get an opposite partners which we call boyfriends or girlfriends. So I carried this thought to look for one who I got was I like the most, she has a lot of things some other girls don’t have. I had been together nearly a year. During that year my best friend was also well known about her who we went out together and played together. He regarded us all the time, what she was good at or the things we did together. One day I stumbled on they were together one night. We gradually broke up†¦. Furthermore, not only this but also he cheated on me when I immigrated to the Unite States. He cheated on me of he was going to buy a house for his mother who was old and sick. Such faith of parents influenced me to lend amount of money to him. However, later I found out he got the money to gamble and loosed it. From that time on he broke his promise to pay me money back and has not even give a call. Confronting frustrations that I recessed the reasons why my friends had chosen to cheat on me, because I was too dependable on my friends. I shared my secrets and feeling. I sacrificed most of things which have never thought to achieve them back. Being excessive in believe people who never shared their secrets or thoughts with me. Profoundly we concern if we really find ones who we can trust on. Then we should treasure them but not to destroy them. Friends are variety groups of people who help each other, comfort to each other, and encourage each other. However, they can destroy our feeling of human dignities. They can grab every thing you have and gone for permanently. Friends could bring happiness or could give hand to you to be succeeded. But at the same time it also can be revise of the opposite sides or make you lost even more than he or she helped you gain. There has such proverb saying â€Å"the more love you receive the more pain you pay† it is truer than ever since.